Four categories of resources are suggested as those given up by individuals as payment (beyond
money) in exchange for product offerings: time, effort, lifestyle and psyche. Marketers may
profitably assume that target consumers are aware of these social "price tags" fastened to every form
of exchange (Fine 1981 a).
Time
A good many expressions synonymous with the aphorism "time is money" have achieved cliche
status. What they all mean is that time expended in an activity represents benefits foregone because
that time was not spent in some alternative manner -- the economic notion of opportunity loss or
opportunity cost. The social price tag labeled "time" is perceived by the consumer to inform him or
her of the opportunity loss or benefits to be foregone because of the rime spent in making a purchase
(at least in a market society; in many societies time is nor considered so valuable). It has been said
that important intellectual progress occurs at a time when poetry is popular. But adopters of the idea
of poetry must pay a time price to write. read and listen -- a price that many harried postindustrial
individuals just cannot afford to pay.
Effort
Expending one's effort in exchange for a product offering is merely bartering one's services in
that exchange. This can take the form of physical action, as in the case of maintenance assistance by
a parent at a cooperative nursery school, or in the travail of participating in an alcoholism program.
Continual or repeated payout of effort results in fatigue that is heightened if the effort does not return
satisfactory reward. Homans (1958) points out that a person thereby "incurs aversive stimulation or
what I shall call 'cost' for short … Fatigue is an example of a 'cost'"
Effort is also sacrificed in giving information in an exchange; information is an important human
resource (Dixon 1978) considered as a product , is in some contexts a price. As an
illustration, a wholesaler's salesman is welcomed by retailers who accept his knowledge and news of
the industry in payment for their allegiance. The salesman is glad to pay this social price, even to the
point of making a deliberate effort to amass a store of gossip with which to compensate his clients
for their valued friendship. Another example is the exchange of a lighter prison sentence for the
police informer who pays for that product with information.
Lifestyle
Modification of one's lifestyle is a price paid in many forms of exchange, as in adopting the idea
of marriage, for one example. While some may thrive on diversity and change, most individuals
look upon the prospect of disruption of the status quo with at least some trepidation and this is true
whether the anticipated change is for the better or for the worse. The social price of advancement to
a better job could be the diminution or elimination of comraderie with former colleagues. The
prospect of having to make new friends is an awesome assignment for some people. A touching
example is given by Mead (1955):The iron plough has sometimes been resisted as an assault upon the land. In villages of the United
Provinces of India, it threatens established human relationships. A man inherits a relationship to a
carpenter family whose task it is to make and repair the plough. This family is always invited to the
farmer's feasts and the women are given saris. The relationship, the "pay," the gifts continue whether
ploughs are made or not ... Perhaps the farmer can be taught to repair his own plough, but it would
mean personal reorientation as well as a change in the valued relationship structure
One reason for the recent increase in single parent homes is that many are unwilling to pay the
price of lifestyle change in exchange for marriage. As Levy and Zaltman (1975) expressed it, "A
common complaint is that married men dislike paying the price of saying 'I love you,' and in
consequence, many marital deals fall through"
Psyche
Part of the price of an exchange often amounts to a forfeit of self-esteem, pride, identity, selfassertion, privacy, control, freedom from fear or risk, or other such losses affecting a person's peace
of mind; they are thus grouped under the heading of psyche. When the American Cancer Society
undertook to distribute Hemocult kits for self-screening of colon-rectum cancer, two major obstacles
were encountered. One was hesitancy to supply a smear of stool as part of the examination. Then
too the program met with a great deal of reluctance to risk the possibility of learning the grim truth of
affliction. These two psychic factors are readily seen as comprising a high social price to be paid for
cancer prevention as an exchange.
Also included in this category is the contribution of one's attention to something -- one "pays"
attention. Bagozzi (1975) points out that "an exchange can occur between a person and a television
program.” The "person gives his attention, support, potential for purchase, etc.” Earlier, Robertson
(1970) had carried this idea still further, adding to attention the social price of loss of self-assertion:
In attending to communication, the individual incurs costs and receives rewards -- an exchange
process exists. Costs incurred in attending to mass-media advertising include time and submission to
"influence," since it is recognized that advertising is persuasive and one-sided. The reward involved
is information, which may be meaningful to the consumer and which may be of value to him in his
consumption behavior ... It can be proposed that, basically, communication will occur up to the point
at which marginal reward from an additional unit of communication equals the marginal cost attached
money) in exchange for product offerings: time, effort, lifestyle and psyche. Marketers may
profitably assume that target consumers are aware of these social "price tags" fastened to every form
of exchange (Fine 1981 a).
Time
A good many expressions synonymous with the aphorism "time is money" have achieved cliche
status. What they all mean is that time expended in an activity represents benefits foregone because
that time was not spent in some alternative manner -- the economic notion of opportunity loss or
opportunity cost. The social price tag labeled "time" is perceived by the consumer to inform him or
her of the opportunity loss or benefits to be foregone because of the rime spent in making a purchase
(at least in a market society; in many societies time is nor considered so valuable). It has been said
that important intellectual progress occurs at a time when poetry is popular. But adopters of the idea
of poetry must pay a time price to write. read and listen -- a price that many harried postindustrial
individuals just cannot afford to pay.
Effort
Expending one's effort in exchange for a product offering is merely bartering one's services in
that exchange. This can take the form of physical action, as in the case of maintenance assistance by
a parent at a cooperative nursery school, or in the travail of participating in an alcoholism program.
Continual or repeated payout of effort results in fatigue that is heightened if the effort does not return
satisfactory reward. Homans (1958) points out that a person thereby "incurs aversive stimulation or
what I shall call 'cost' for short … Fatigue is an example of a 'cost'"
Effort is also sacrificed in giving information in an exchange; information is an important human
resource (Dixon 1978) considered as a product , is in some contexts a price. As an
illustration, a wholesaler's salesman is welcomed by retailers who accept his knowledge and news of
the industry in payment for their allegiance. The salesman is glad to pay this social price, even to the
point of making a deliberate effort to amass a store of gossip with which to compensate his clients
for their valued friendship. Another example is the exchange of a lighter prison sentence for the
police informer who pays for that product with information.
Lifestyle
Modification of one's lifestyle is a price paid in many forms of exchange, as in adopting the idea
of marriage, for one example. While some may thrive on diversity and change, most individuals
look upon the prospect of disruption of the status quo with at least some trepidation and this is true
whether the anticipated change is for the better or for the worse. The social price of advancement to
a better job could be the diminution or elimination of comraderie with former colleagues. The
prospect of having to make new friends is an awesome assignment for some people. A touching
example is given by Mead (1955):The iron plough has sometimes been resisted as an assault upon the land. In villages of the United
Provinces of India, it threatens established human relationships. A man inherits a relationship to a
carpenter family whose task it is to make and repair the plough. This family is always invited to the
farmer's feasts and the women are given saris. The relationship, the "pay," the gifts continue whether
ploughs are made or not ... Perhaps the farmer can be taught to repair his own plough, but it would
mean personal reorientation as well as a change in the valued relationship structure
One reason for the recent increase in single parent homes is that many are unwilling to pay the
price of lifestyle change in exchange for marriage. As Levy and Zaltman (1975) expressed it, "A
common complaint is that married men dislike paying the price of saying 'I love you,' and in
consequence, many marital deals fall through"
Psyche
Part of the price of an exchange often amounts to a forfeit of self-esteem, pride, identity, selfassertion, privacy, control, freedom from fear or risk, or other such losses affecting a person's peace
of mind; they are thus grouped under the heading of psyche. When the American Cancer Society
undertook to distribute Hemocult kits for self-screening of colon-rectum cancer, two major obstacles
were encountered. One was hesitancy to supply a smear of stool as part of the examination. Then
too the program met with a great deal of reluctance to risk the possibility of learning the grim truth of
affliction. These two psychic factors are readily seen as comprising a high social price to be paid for
cancer prevention as an exchange.
Also included in this category is the contribution of one's attention to something -- one "pays"
attention. Bagozzi (1975) points out that "an exchange can occur between a person and a television
program.” The "person gives his attention, support, potential for purchase, etc.” Earlier, Robertson
(1970) had carried this idea still further, adding to attention the social price of loss of self-assertion:
In attending to communication, the individual incurs costs and receives rewards -- an exchange
process exists. Costs incurred in attending to mass-media advertising include time and submission to
"influence," since it is recognized that advertising is persuasive and one-sided. The reward involved
is information, which may be meaningful to the consumer and which may be of value to him in his
consumption behavior ... It can be proposed that, basically, communication will occur up to the point
at which marginal reward from an additional unit of communication equals the marginal cost attached
No comments:
Post a Comment